Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)

Vimal Khawas

The global climatic change during the second half of the twentieth century has brought about tremendous impact on the high mountainous glacial environments across the globe. The recent report compiled by the WWF Nepal Programme ‘An Overview of Glaciers, Glacier Retreat, and Subsequent Impact in Nepal, India and China’ seriously warns the people and policy makers in this context and the associated vices brought about glacier melting. The report points out that Himalayan Glaciers were receding at the rate of 10-15 meters per year on average and ironically were accelerating with increase in global warming. The receding rate is regarded as among the fastest in the world that severely threatens natural resource bases including water shortages in India, China and Nepal.

More dangerously, the report highlights that the Gangotri Glacier has been receding at an average rate of 23 meters per years in the last three decades. Further, observations, by geo-scientists, have led to the detection of various rates of glacial retreat in different parts of the Eastern India Himalayan region as well. In this connection it is observed that the Zemu Glacier of North Sikkim has been retreating at the rate of 8 meters per year while the ‘Kanchenjunga Massive’ in North Sikkim is behaving differently from those of the adjoining areas in recent times.

Box 1: Glacial Retreat and Advance
Glaciers originate in the high mountains where the snow budget is positive i.e. where the winter accumulation exceeds summer ablation. In such areas snow continues to grow year after year, and when the net accumulation in an area exceeds about 50 meters in thickness, the snow gradually changes into firn and then into ice through various processes of metamorphism, crystallization, melting and refreezing etc. The snow and ice ultimately fill up the snowfield and over flow down the preexisting stream valleys as mountain/valley glaciers. The snout of the glacier invariably descends well below the snow line, the lowest limit of perpetual snow, as a contrary to some prevalent conceptions and modifies topography initially produced mainly by fluvial action. This is the process by which the glaciations in the Himalaya and other high mountains of the world took place in the past. If the summer ablation in an area exceeds the winter accumulation of snow for several years or decades in succession, then the glacier and the snowfield start shrinking. Accumulation and ablation of snow in an area depends primarily on temperature and humidity of the atmosphere. Advance and retreat of the glaciers thus results from global and/or local changes of weather and climate. Such variations therefore, may be regarded as a reflection of changes in the atmospheric conditions of the earth as well as the area where it is taking place. (Bandhyopadhyay, M.K., 1998, Glacier Variation in the Himalaya, Geographical Review of India, Vol. 60, No.4, Pp. 381-391)

One of the most threatening impacts of glacial melting and subsequent retreat has been the Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs). They are catastrophic discharges of water resulting primarily from melting glaciers. Many of the big glaciers have melted and retreated rapidly and have given birth to the origin of a large number of glacier lakes. Due to the faster rate of ice and snow melting, caused by the global warming, the accumulation of water in these lakes has been increasing rapidly and resulting sudden discharge of large volumes of water and debris and causing flooding in the downstream. An accelerated retreat of the glaciers in recent times has led to an enlargement of several glacial lakes. As the glaciers retreat they leave a large void behind. The ponds occupy the depression earlier occupied by glacier ice. These dams are structurally weak and unstable and undergo constant changes due to slope failures, slumping, etc. and run the risk of causing GLOFs.

Characterised by sudden releases of huge amounts of lake water, which in turn would rush down along the stream channel downstream in the form of dangerous flood waves, GLOF waves comprise water mixed with morainic materials and cause devastation for downstream riparian communities, hydropower stations and other infrastructure. Further, Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) causes disasters to life and property along the downstream, results serious death tolls and destruction of valuable forests, farms and costly mountain infrastructure.

There has been a frequent and alarming occurrence of GLOFs in and around the Himalayas. It has been observed that the frequency of the occurrence of GLOF events has been increasing in the second half of the twentieth century. GLOFs have cost lives, property and infrastructure in India, Nepal and China. Glacial Lake Out-burst Floods (GLOF) are the main natural hazards in the mountain areas of this region. A 1964 GLOF in China destroyed many kilometers of highway and washed 12 timber trucks 71 km from the scene. An outburst of Zhangzangbo Lake in 1981 killed four people and damaged the China-Nepal Friendship Bridge in the northern border, seven other bridges, a hydropower plant, Arniko highway and 51 houses. The damage was estimated to be USD 3 million. The 1985 GLOF at Dig Tsho was triggered by a large avalanche. A hydroelectricity project, 14 bridges, 30 houses and farmlands worth USD 4 million were destroyed. In 1998, the outburst of Tam Pokhari in Nepal killed two people, destroyed more than six bridges and washed away arable land. Losses worth over 150 million rupees have been estimated. A high water level was observed even after 19 hours in the Koshi barrage near the Indo-Nepal border. The river reverted to its original flow only after three days. There are about 159 glacier lakes in Koshi basin. Nearly 229 glacier lakes were identified in Tibet’s Arun basin, out of which 24 are potentially dangerous. Since 1935 more than 16 GLOFs have been reported which either occurred or extended into Nepal. This is a serious potential hazard that needs a thorough study on the Glaciology of the region before things go out of our control.

The solution of such problems is not so easy. Local steps like checking deforestation and overgrazing in the high altitude areas may not be sufficient enough to check glacial melting. This is a global problem and needs a global action. We, however, need to act in our own way to check global warming and at the same time keep in touch with other counterparts and see how they react to the problem. It is also that, all scientists associated with the geo-science should come together and work in close cooperation in the interdisciplinary problem of glacier variation with the aim of saving humanity from approaching disaster. Accurate and timely information on the spatial locations and regular monitoring of the glacier lakes' behavior is needed, to supervise and check the GLOF hazards and also assess the damages to be occurred in the near future. Modern information tools such as Remote Sensing and GIS could play a lead role in identifying potential risk lakes and monitoring the GLOF events in near real time.

**Associate Fellow, Council for Social Development, New Delhi. vimalkhawas@gmail.com**

Bhujels of Indo-Nepal Himalayas: Some Reflections

The term Bhujel refers to a distinct ethnic group within the larger Nepali Community. Bhujel is an ethnic hill tribei of mongoloid origin belonging to the Kirata domain and dwell mostly across the southern slopes of the Himalayas both in Nepal and India. The name Bhujel is said to be derived from Bhujikot- a river valley along Bhuji Khola (River) area of Baglung district of Nepal in the southern slope of the mountain Dhaulagiri. Some Bhujels also identify themselves as Khawas. Further, Bhujels are often termed, as Ghartis across the major parts of Nepal although such term is used in a relatively lesser extent in the areas inhabited by the Bhujels in India. The important questions as to why many Bhujels see themselves as Khawas and why they are termed as Ghartis by the Nepalese society have their roots in the historical antecedents and no concrete research works have been done towards these ends. In fact, we do not have any noteworthy historical and anthropological documentation with respect to the origin of this group of people apart from some collective linguistic studies along with other tribal groups like chepangs, mangars and gurungs by the foreign scholars during the colonial era. The later studies in this respect conducted by the local scholars have been a mere follow up to the earlier studies and hence there has not been much head way in the literature of the origin, history, and other traditional aspects of this tribal group. The Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) has listed Bhujels as a minority indigenous group of the medieval Dor Kingdom of Magar region, Nisi and Bhuji areas of Nepal.

The ancestral place or what we also call it the core of the Bhujels is said to be the Bhuji and Nishi region in Baglong district of Nepal. However, over the period of time perhaps, particularly starting from the early eighteenth century, due to various socio-cultural, economic and environmental factors they scattered across the space in all the directions and in recent times they are found all across the kingdom of Nepal; and some parts of India like Darjeeling Hills, Sikkim, some parts of Northeastern Hills and Uttaranchal. Their population in Nepal according to the Census of Nepal, 2001 comes to 117644. In India the census does not count the population on the basis of caste or tribal group but only on the basis of language spoken (as 100 percent of the Bhujels speak nepali in India although they had their own language historically) and hence we do not have the formal figures of the Bhujels inhabiting across the geographical spaces of the country. However, according to the estimates of the local scholars from Darjeeling Hills and Sikkim the population of Bhujels in Darjeeling Hills comes to around 5000 and in Sikkim over 3000. The Encyclopedia of North-East India (2001) commenting on the people of Sikkim puts the total population of Bhujel to about 1000 in the State of Sikkim.
The origin and history of Bhujels is featured with various myths and assumptions without any proper scholarly documentation and evidences to support the arguments unlike other tribal groups like Lepchas, Tamangs, and Mangars etc. Such legends are based on oral word of mouth versions and have continued through the generations till today. These oral genealogies are surely distorted and highly exaggerated after all those years of retelling. The Bhujels themselves declare that their ancestors had own kingdom in and around Nishi-Bhuji area. According to C. B. Bhujel , “there was a small kingdom of Bhujels in the Bhuji region and it’s surrounding in the historic past”. Shri Bhujel further states that he along with some local scholars visited the villages in the Bhuji region few years back and witnessed an old dilapidated palace of the Bhujel Rajah locally called Bhujirajha. It is also believed that Bhujirajah was a magnificent man and a great justice provider. He used to provide justice to all the subjects of Nepal who had fallen victims to injustice. However, because of unhappy incidences (possibly they had to fight a war and lost the same) in Magarat they were forced to scatter in different parts of the remote hill areas across Nepal and India. They were extremely oppressed and exploited in the past. We, nevertheless, do not have any scientific document of historical, sociological or anthropological importance to validate the authenticity of the above claims pertaining to Bhujels. Much research works, therefore, need to be done, towards these ends.

Bhujels are regarded close to Magars culturally and to that of Chepangs linguistically but again there are no concrete studies in this respect excluding few studies conducted by some foreign linguists during colonial era. Some even go one step forward and declare Bhujels to be the sub-set of the Magars. But where are the anthropological evidences? According to the Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN), “the religion and culture of these backward people are close to extinction, and Hindu influences have been encroaching on their ways of life”. Bhujels too have their own language and it belongs to Tibeto-Burman family. Today, the Bhujel language or what it is also called Bhujel Kura is in the verge of extinction. The census of Nepal, 2001, puts the total number of Bhujel language speakers at 10733 constituting 0.05 % of the total population of the country. The situation is worst in the Indian counter part. No Bhujels in India speak their language. And more ironically many Bhujels, particularly the younger generations, do not even know that their ancestors had their own literature and used to speak the language of their own. There have been instances in Darjeeling and Sikkim Hills when the people from Nepali community themselves have asked who the Bhujels are, or whether they belong to Nepali community or some other tribal groups. We are yet to study the Bhujel language in detail and produce a proper linguistic document of this vanishing language.

According to the Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) less then 20 per cent of the Bhujels are literate in Nepal. We do not have the formal figure in this respect for the Bhujels in India but the situation may not be very different. Economically, over 90 per cent of the Bhujels in Nepal and about 80 percent in India live below the poverty line and are not surprisingly among the most backward people both in Nepal and India. They are majorly concentrated in lower and middle hills of the Himalayan region of both Nepal and India and are mainly engaged in agriculture and other domestic chores including making of ploughs, yokes, various bamboo goods. They are also excellent in weaving cloths, spinning threads, knitting carpets blankets and preparing other handy crafts. Very few Bhujels are into secondary and tertiary sectors both in Nepal and India. Some of them are engaged in construction and trade while negligible percentages of them are into service sector.

To conclude, there is no authentic scholarly documentation with regard to the origin and history of Bhujels. Although Bhujels are regarded similar to Magars on cultural grounds and to Chepangs linguistically validity of these claims are yet to be scientifically authenticated. Bhujels have their own language but it is in the verge of extinction. They are one of the backward tribal groups within the Nepali community both in Nepal and India and are mainly engaged in agriculture for their livelihood with very few into secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy. This minority tribal group deserves proper scholarly and scientific investigation and documentation with respect to its origin, history, socio-cultural characteristics, geographical distribution, and its vanishing language and literature before they evaporate into the larger Nepali society and become a couple of paragraphs in the history textbook to our future generations.

Pehchan: An Alternative Education to Girl Children in India

Vimal Khawas


Education is the manifestation and perfection of the knowledge. It is the basis of overall socio-economic upliftment of human beings. Hence, education should be seen from the broadest perspective of overall socio-economic and environmental advancement. My recent visit to some villages in the Phagi and Chakshu blocks of Jaipur district in Rajasthan reconfirmed the above points. I was there as a coordinator of the UNICEF interns to evaluate the alternative education or informal education imparted through the local NGOs under a project: Pehchan or Identity.

India has been quite notorious as far as the women’s empowerment is concerned- be it social, economic or environmental empowerment- since historic past. Unprecedented gender gap in literacy rate, early marriage of the girls in rural India, second rated treatment within the household, lack of voice of a woman in the decision making process at the household and the community level, poor health and hygiene etc. even at present times reflect the degree and intensity of the situation with respect to women’s empowerment in the country.

Rajasthan often provides pertinent examples in the country in this connection. One of the most pressing issues in the state with respect to the women’s empowerment has been the unprecedented numbers of out of school girl children. The reasons may be various-ranging from economic to socio-cultural. Aware of this very fact the state government of Rajasthan conducted a state-wide survey in the year 2000 in this regard. Surprisingly, about 20000 out of school girls were found in the rural part of Jaipur district. These girls were either school dropped out or who never went to schools. Consequently, the district collector approached UNICEF with an idea of a project to provide education to these girls. Accordingly, UNICEF designed a project known as Pehchan to be implemented on a pilot basis in two blocks of Jaipur rural district namely, Chaksu and Phagi blocks, with the expectation of its subsequent scale up to the entire district. The task was taken up by Dighantar in Phagi and by CULP in Chaksu block with the financial support from UNICEF.

The project is in force since August 2002. The overall goal of Pehchan Project is to support the ongoing efforts of the state government in achieving Universal Elementary Education (UEE), specifically focussing on out of school girls aged between 9-14 years. The project runs bridge courses in Pehchan Salas (alternative learning centres) and prepares them for mainstreaming in government schools according to their age and academic abilities, besides imparting life skills to the adolescent girls. Apart from this, the project also sensitises and influences the communities and the government school system to address the larger social and gender issue to help eliminate gender and caste/class disparity in education. Thus the project works with three major components: Girl children (9-14 yrs), Communities and Government Schools.

In less than 3 years time the project has shown some tangible results. Apart from mainstreaming over 60 percent out of school girls, the project has brought about qualitative and quantitative changes. The qualitative impact is observed at the behavioural and attitudinal changes in the girl children. Today, these girls feel more independent, have better sense of health & hygiene, can talk to the strangers, are more confident, have the basic understanding about the value of education, are more aware about the gender issues and most importantly have started questioning many social taboos at the household and community levels. At the community level we observed people have become more aware about the importance of girls’ education at individual, household and societal levels.

The quantitative impacts were seen in terms of increased access to quality education, and the ability of the girls to read and write without much hesitation. Discussion with the community members and the girls themselves showed that the girls can now maintain the basic household accounts, can go to the nearest market and do the necessary shopping, can bargain with the shop keepers, can read the bus numbers, letters and medicinal prescriptions etc.

The project is, however, not free from some inherent socio-economic constraints like dropping out of the trained teachers and the students, marriages of the pechansala girls and subsequent drop out, household duty of the girls, herding the sheep and goats etc. Location of the government schools far away from the village has been the other pertinent force that has often discouraged the parents to allow their daughters to be mainstreamed after the completion of the Pehchansalas. Furthermore, UNICEF has made up its mind to discontinue the project in Phagi and Chaksu blocks of Jaipur district in December 2005 and extend it to the Tonk district.

It is highly recommended that project of this nature needs to be supported for at least about a decade to witness its real impact. The degree and intensity of the financial support can, however, be gradually reduced with time. Finally, the responsibility has to be taken by the Gram Panchayat and the community. Further, the project needs to be replicated to other districts of the state where it is necessary. Situations in the states like Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa are no better than Rajasthan. The Pehchan model of alternative education to adolescent girls can be thought of in these states too.

Monsoon Menace:Landslides in the Darjeeling Hills

Landslides are very common disaster phenomena across hills and mountains causing great human, economic and environmental losses. The Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas in India is a region that is known to be worst affected in this connection. Even a cursory glance at slide statistics gives us a fearful idea of the enormity of damage done and the ever-present threat to life and property. In this area within the last hundred years over 10,000 slides have been registered. The physical extent of landslides effect covers an area of approximately 400 Square Kilometer. Thousands of lives have been lost and the overall economic development of this strategically important region negatively impacted.

Geomorphologically, landslide is nature’s way of adjusting slope stability. It is one of the mass wasting processes and is responsible for the degradation of slopes and relief. However, across the spectrum of development the process has been intensified by human interference mainly through deforestation, incorrect construction procedure and unplanned tapping of natural resources. Hence, the degree and frequency of this disaster has notably increased over the period of time.

During the moonsoon of 2005 Darjeeling Hills suffered a heavy disaster. The monsoon landslides across the hills of Darjeeling took the toll of over 15 people besides enormous economic and environmental losses. High rainfall, scarce natural vegetation and faulty development are attributed as the pertinent forces in this regard. Further, efforts by rescue workers to clear debris were hampered by inclement weather. Heavy mudslides were reported on National Highway 31(A) that connects Sikkim to the rest of the country. The hill resort of Darjeeling and other far-flung parts of the district including Kalimpong and Sikkim were virtually cut off from the rest of the country for a considerable period of time. Several hill rivers (and smaller tributaries to it), including the River Teesta flowed above their danger mark.

A part of the lofty Himalayas, Darjeeling and its surrounding hills are still very prone and vulnerable to any natural catastrophe. When this is followed by faulty human interventions disasters are the only consequence. Darjeeling hills as of today is covered with less than 40 percent of its geographical area by forests while the (recommended) actual minimum requirement is 60 percent. Disaster preparedness mechanism in the region is, virtually, in its ancient stage. Government machineries responsible for the purpose are in their hibernation until the disaster occurs every monsoon.

Formulation of the professional Disaster Management Team is a must in view of the fragility and vulnerability of the region and the resultant environmental and human degradation. Massive afforestation and conservation of the natural vegetation are other important tools to check the frequency and intensity of such natural disasters in the region.

Challenges of Spatial Development in Darjeeling Hills

Development has often been defined as a progress made by human across space and along the spectrum of time. Initially, we misunderstood development with quantitative progress and overlooked the qualitative part. Economic growth was regarded as pillar and foundation of development. We, however, shortly realised that economic growth was not enough to attain societal development. Qualitative progress of human being was equally found to be important. It was increasingly felt that unless we are socially developed in terms of health, education, gender equity, spatial equity etc there was little or no meaning of wealth. More recently, particularly since the Rio Summit of 1992, environment has become the third important pillar of development. Today, we talk of sustainable development that respects not only economic and social attributes but also environmental parameters.

The importance of Space in Development

Space or spatial aspect is one of the prime indicators of socio-economic development in any region. A region is divided into various spatial/geographic locations. Urban, Rural, Towns, Cities, Villages, Hills, Plains are all part of spatial characteristics of a particular region. Development or progress has to equitably respect all the spatial characters else there comes into play another parameter called ‘disparity’. Disparity in development is one of the prime topics in development discourse across the globe in recent times. It was disparity in development, meted out by the Government of West Bengal and for that matter Government of India that prompted the Gorkhas of Darjeeling Hills to fight against the directors and implementers of development since 1907 that culminated in a violent ‘Gorkhaland Agitation’ of the 1980s.

How far ‘Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council’ been respecting the space is one of the obvious questions that strike us today. Since we fought for almost a century for this ‘space’ it becomes pertinent to put before the development authority (ies), sitting in Lal Kothi, the question of ‘space’ and spatial equity in their development approach. This is so, because DGHC enjoys the executive powers in the hill areas in relation to almost all the development-related activities and the respective development establishments. Besides, it also enjoys the general powers to formulate integrated development plans for the hill areas and implement development schemes and programmes[i].

Importantly, a research scholar in Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, recently studied the levels of rural development in Darjeeling hills as part of his M.Phil dissertation. One of the most important findings of his study is that there has been a rampant disparity in urban and rural areas. Further, even across the rural spaces notable disparities have been found as some of the most backward villages in the region are located across the remote nooks of Kalimpong and Kurseong sub-divisions. In Kalimpong such villages are located beyond Relli Khola. Villages like Suruk, Yang, Makum, Panbu and many others are the prime examples reflecting immense disparity in development within rural Darjeeling Hills.

Cases of Suruk and Yang-Makum Khasmahal Villages[ii]

Administratively, Darjeeling hills have been divided into three major spatial categories. They are Sadar Darjeeling, Kurseong, and Kalimpong sub-divisions. Each sub-division is further categorised into urban and rural spaces. Rural areas are divided into Kamans and Busties (villages). Busties are further divided into revenue and Khasmahal Busties / villages. This is a general spatial structure of Darjeeling Hills under the developmental direction of Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council. Darjeeling Hills as per the Census of India 2001 constitute over 52 percent of the total population of Darjeeling district.

Suruk and Yang-Makum villages are located in the southern most part of Kalimpong sub-division. Yang-Makum has a total population of 3094 while Suruk has a total of 1710 population as per the Census of India, 2001. These villages subsume under them some 20-25 hamlets (sub-villages). Panbu, the most backward hamlet of Darjeeling Hills, as per the research finding, is located in Yang-Makum Village.

Economic Participation
Economic participation refers to the ratio of those men and women who are engaged in one or the other economic activity. The total economic participation of Suruk is about 41 percent while the same for Yang-Makum is 54 percent. In comparison, the total economic participation for the whole of rural Darjeeling comes to around only 37 percent. About 63 percent of the total populations of rural Darjeeling are non-workers, consisting of unemployed, children and senior citizens. In case of Yang-Makum, only 46 percent of the total populations are non-workers while 59 percent are non-workers in Suruk. This means the rural folks of these two villages are economically more active than that of the average rural Darjeeling. It further means people in the area work harder than average rural soul of Darjeeling Hills to sustain their livelihoods.

Agricultural Activity
Agricultural activity is one of the prime economic activities in any rural region. In rural Darjeeling 21 percent of the populations are cultivators and directly depend on agriculture. The rest of them are engaged in other forms of economic activity. However, in case of Suruk and Yang-Makum Villages over 90 percent of the total population are cultivators and agriculture forms the backbone their livihood. These two villages mainly practice subsistence farming consisting of foods grains and cereals. Commercialisation of agricultural activity is yet to find its place in the area although some of the farmers are experimenting ginger cultivation on a commercial basis, more recently. No attempt has been made to diversify the rural economies in the area.

Left over pockets!
Not surprisingly, these two villages are devoid of most basic human requirements like road communication, electricity, safe drinking water, primary health centre, efficient primary and secondary schools and many other basic physical, social and economic infrastructure facilities. As one may do in many parts of the country, the spatial socio-economic structure cannot be analysed in the Queen of the Hills merely by observing the towns and roadside developments. A house-to-house survey in these rural villages will reveal the real picture as to how people are struggling for their livelihood. That the infrastructure is unsatisfactory is evident on seeing the poor still trudging a daylong walk to buy provisions or sell their agricultural produce in the nearest town. The situation becomes worse during the rainy season when frequent large-scale landslides and other forms of mass wasting take place. During this period a large number of villagers lose their lives.

Vicious cycle
The villages in the last few decades have been witnessing a notable male selective migration for better economic opportunities. Migration is mainly taking place towards the urban environment of the district and to the major cities of the country like Delhi, Calcutta, Chennai, and Mumbai, to name the important few. Population pressure, degradation of the Common Property Resources, depletion of forests; long neglect of the region, backwardness of the economy and society, low agricultural productivity, lack of opportunity etc. have played prominent role in this regard. Though this has been bringing home money, needed hands are diminished from home and native village at the same time. As a result, agricultural production has seriously disrupted and has ultimately started declining. The drains of the labour force has caused damage to the subsistence economy on the one hand while on the other they are discouraging efforts to wards self reliance of the village. Also, although, the money earned is sent to the villages; on account of the ecological constraints, inadequate manpower, and low technology, traditional agriculture does not provide the local hill folks with adequate income to meet their basic necessities. Thus, the money is again floated back to buy provisions. This vicious cycle keeps the rural people of these villages with very little savings.

Challenges of Spatial Development Planning

Development, in order to be sustainable and equitable, needs to be planned. An unplanned development approach leads to lopsided development. Lopsided development refers to asymmetrical fruits of development venture. It is, to be more precise, an unequal distribution of the results of development. Equitable distribution of development across space is one of the essential pre-requisites of sustainable development. Some of the major spatial development challenges under the development direction of DGHC may be listed below:

1. DGHC has not been able to plan development and distribute the fruits of development equitably across its spaces;

2. Development maps in the region are drawn by the politicians and associated heavy weights instead of professional development planners;

3. The available development professionals are forced to follow the dictates of elected leaders that are less supported by logical reasoning/scientific explanations and more by vested interests;

4. Precedence of politics and populism over rational development planning makes things further murkier;

5. There is negligible or no participatory (general people’s participation) planning techniques followed in the region;

6. There are many pockets (like Suruk and Yang-Makum) and sub-pockets (like Panbu) across the geographical spaces of Darjeeling hills where DGHC has continuously been unable, or rather turned deaf year, to address the pertinent and grave development issues over the years.

Unless we address the above listed challenges rural spaces scattered across length and breath of the region will continue to reel under the vicious cycle of poverty and hardship. We need to identify needy spaces and include them into development planning of the region. An integrated / holistic development takes along with it all the spaces - rural and urban, remote and nearby, densely populated and sparsely populated. Further, a rational development planning balances between the sectors. For example, roads are important but equally important are other sectors like electricity, safe drinking water, health facilities, educational institutes, rural economic diversification etc. DGHC has not been able to develop a holistic spatial regional development plan. It has also failed to balance / prioritise among various development sectors.


[i] As mentioned in Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council Act, 1988.
[ii] The quantitative data mentioned in this section are drawn from the Census of India, 2001, Primary Census Abstract, Office of the Registrar General of India, New Delhi.

**Vimal Khawas is an Associate Fellow, Council for Social Development, New Delhi and can be contacted at vimalkhawas@gmail.com**